What Is the MCAT Scores, Registration, Exam Content

The Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT) is an important tool used by medical school admissions committees. The test is intended to gauge applicants preparedness for the challenges of medical school. For many students, a sense of mystery and confusion surrounds the exam, so we created this basic overview to answer the most frequently asked questions about the MCAT. Whats on the MCAT?   The MCAT is a 230-question exam broken into four general topic areas: Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems; Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems; Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior; and Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills (CARS). The basic information covered in introductory university-level courses in biology, chemistry, physics, biochemistry, psychology, sociology, and pre-algebra math are tested across these four sections of the MCAT. Read More: MCAT Sections Explained How long is the MCAT?   The MCAT is a 7.5-hour long examination. Each science-related section consists of 59 questions (15 stand-alone questions, 44 passage-based questions) with 95 minutes given to finish the section. The CARS section is 53 questions (all passage-based) with 90 minutes to complete it. The actual time sitting for the exam is 6.25 hours, with the remaining time divided between two 10-minute breaks and one 30-minute break. Can I use a calculator on the MCAT?   No, calculators are not permitted on the exam. You should review basic arithmetic, including fractions, exponents, logarithms, geometry, and trigonometry to prepare for the test. What about scratch paper?   Yes, but it isnt paper. During the exam, you will be provided with a laminated noteboard booklet and a wet-erase marker. You may use the front and back of these nine graph-lined pages, but you will not be able to erase. If you need more scratch paper, additional noteboard(s) can be provided. How is the MCAT scored?   You will receive five separate scores for the MCAT exam: one from each of the four sections, and a total score. Raw scores are scaled to account for slight differences between different versions of the test. You will receive the scaled version of your scores. You will also receive a percentile ranking with each score to understand how your score compares to other test-takers. Read More: What Is a Good MCAT Score? How long are MCAT scores valid?   MCAT scores are valid for up to three years, though some programs will only accept scores that are no older than two years. When will I receive my MCAT score?   MCAT scores are released approximately one month (30-35 days) after the exam date by 5 PM EST and can be checked online. How do I prepare for the MCAT?   There are several ways to prepare for the MCAT, from self-directed review to prep programs offered by professional test prep companies. No matter the approach you choose, youll need to review the information covered in introductory university courses in biology, chemistry, physics, biochemistry, psychology, and sociology. You must also be comfortable doing basic mathematical functions without the assistance of a calculator. The layout of the exam is unique with its focus on passage-based questions and inclusion of the CARS section, so your preparations should include practicing with sample problems from the real MCAT. When should I start studying for the MCAT? Some argue that the MCAT requires only eight weeks of preparation, while others contend that three to six months of study time are necessary. The bottom line is that it depends on the student. Keep in mind that the exam is a test of content knowledge and critical thinking skills. First, youll need to complete at least a cursory review of the materials covered by the MCAT, which can take two to four months. After that, youll need a minimum of eight weeks practicing sample MCAT problems and taking practice exams, extending the necessary prep time into the three- to six-month range. Naturally, the more material you need to review, the more time youll need to devote to test prep. Read More: MCAT Questions of the Day How long should I study for the MCAT? The exact answer varies from student to student. In general, if you are completing eight weeks . of intensive prep, youll need to spend 15-30 hours per week for a total of 120-240 hours of study time. The average student will need about 200-300 hours of review time before sitting for the exam. When should I take the MCAT? The MCAT is offered several times per month from January to September. You can take the MCAT as early as the end of your sophomore year. Most pre-med students take the MCAT near the end of their junior year. This means you must carefully plan to have your coursework finished well in advance of the expected test date in order to adequately prepare for the test. Remember that poor MCAT scores do not disappear, and medical schools will be able to see the score from every attempt. Make sure you are fully prepared before even thinking of taking the MCAT. If you consistently scoring about a 510 or higher on practice exams, youre likely ready for the real deal. Read More: MCAT Test Dates and Score Release Dates How much does the MCAT cost?   Currently, the MCAT costs $320, but the cost increases to $375 if scheduled within a week of the exam date. For students who are eligible for the fee assistance program, the cost is reduced to $130 ($175 for later registration). There is an additional $115 fee for international students (except residents of Canada, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands). Dates fill up quickly, so you should register as soon as you have your test prep planned. Read More: MCAT Costs and Fee Assistance Program How do I register for the MCAT? MCAT registration is processed through the AAMC (Association of American Medical Colleges), and you will need to create an account with them in order to register. How many times can I take the MCAT?   Taking the MCAT multiple times may not reflect well on medical school applications. However, you can take the MCAT up to three times during one calendar year or four times over a two-year period. You may only take the MCAT a maximum of seven times in a lifetime.   Medical schools take several factors into account when considering your application: your transcript, letters of recommendation, and of course, your medical college admissions test, or MCAT, score.

Walmart s Success Of The Global Market - 1332 Words

Walmart s Success in the Global Market In terms of ‘Identify Basic Appeal’ which concerns suitability of climate, restriction on certain items, access to material, and others – Walmart has used this step of the market screening process for much of its international business ventures (Wild and Wild, 2013, p.301). For instance, in Brazil the tropical temperature (which normally does not fall below 20 °C throughout the year) – has apparently influenced the type of apparel that the company sells in its stores (World Travel Guide, 2016; Walmart, 2016). Because, within the stores of Walmart in Brazil, one can find clothing made from fabric - as in, cotton and linen, which are material suited for the warmer weather found in Brazil (Walmart, 2016). Whereas, for a country like Canada – within Walmart stores, clothing can be found that are tailored for each of the four seasons, thus one will be able to find winter jackets and shorts in line with the seasons that they are most suited for. As for r estricted items, in Ontario (Canada), since the retailing of liquor presently falls under the purview of the Liquor Control Board of Ontario (LCBO) - one would not find alcohol base beverages on the shelves of Walmart or being marketed by the entity (Alcohol and Gaming Commission of Ontario, 2010). However, on the websites of Walmart in the US, there are several options available as it relates to the purchase of alcoholic beverages (Walmart, 2016). As it relates to access to material, whenShow MoreRelatedWalmart International Segment Of Walmart1553 Words   |  7 PagesWalmart International segment First, Walmart is the largest retailer in United State of America and also Walmart is the largest retailer in the world. Wal mart has branches in all states in US., and more than 11,000 stores in 28 countries as 65 banners that people know. At first Walmart established the first international store in Mexico City, Mexico in 1991, that the organization uses the name Walmart for operating in the United States and Canada. Walmart has an employee 2.2 million employees aroundRead MoreWalmart s Strategy Fit The Market Environment920 Words   |  4 PagesBackground: Walmart begun to explore the global markets in early 1990s. Its first expansion was in Mexico, where Walmart ran its retail business as joint venture with the largest retailer Cifra S.A. in Mexico. The Walmart’s format proved to be quite successful in Mexico. Followed by year 1994, Walmart entered Canada market by acquisition strategy. In 1996, Walmart penetrate China by opening Sam’s Club and supercenter in Shenzhen, and acquisition of hypermarket chain called Trust-Mart in 2007. 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First, Walmart has a highly advanced and efficient supply chain system. Walmart built a vendor-managed inventory system to manage its warehouses and its distributionRead MoreWal Mart Worldwide Development Procedures Essay1695 Words   |  7 PagesWalmart is a large retailer in over 26 countries outside of the United States. (Berfield, 2013) After opening 16 stores in the South Korea market, in 2006 Walmart was banned from South Korea due to their poor marketing stra tegies. (Berfield, 2013) The U.S based company did not change the way they would approach the Korean market to assure that their culture would be included within the retail stores. Walmart stuck with their American way of marketing their products to the Korean consumers (BerfieldRead MoreGlobalization of Wal-Mart1177 Words   |  5 PagesDerek Moore 9/13/12 GEB3356, Omanwa Minicase: â€Å"The globalization of Walmart† As the world’s largest retail store in the world, Walmart wants to be in every market that they can be prosperous in. They know they rule the United States market, so why not try to expand overseas and dominate those markets as well. Now that they have reached limits on expansion here in the U.S., the next step was to test the water in other nations. As they began to go international, there were many critics saying theyRead MoreSustainability and Walmart1602 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿ Walmart Stores, Inc. Strategic Initiative Preston Burrell, Sue Ford, Ketia Francois, Chris Hiniker, George Lance FIN370 July 29, 2013 Laura Haase Walmart’s Strategic Initiative Strategic planning is a goal of most if not all companies that exist. 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The successful retail giant has been known to dominate markets and operate on global efficiencies. Walmart operates in 27 countries with more than 11,000 stores serving more than 2 million consumers worldwide (Walmart). The economic satisfaction

The Twilight Saga 4 Breaking Dawn 31. Talented Free Essays

string(77) " product of good preparation – focus and attitude,he’d declared\." â€Å"What is the werewolves’ part in this?† Tanya asked then, eyeing Jacob. Jacob spoke before Edward could answer. â€Å"If the Volturi won’t stop to listen about Nessie, I mean Renesmee,† he corrected himself, remembering that Tanya would not understand his stupid nickname, â€Å"we will stop them. We will write a custom essay sample on The Twilight Saga 4: Breaking Dawn 31. Talented or any similar topic only for you Order Now † â€Å"Very brave, child, but that would be impossible for more experienced fighters than you are.† â€Å"You don’t know what we can do.† Tanya shrugged. â€Å"It is your own life, certainly, to spend as you choose.† Jacob’s eyes flickered to Renesmee – still in Carmen’s arms with Kate hovering over them – and it was easy to read the longing in them. â€Å"She is special, that little one,† Tanya mused. â€Å"Hard to resist.† â€Å"A very talented family,† Eleazar murmured as he paced. His tempo was increasing; he flashed from the door to Carmen and back again every second. â€Å"A mind reader for a father, a shield for a mother, and then whatever magic this extraordinary child has bewitched us with. I wonder if there is a name for what she does, or if it is the norm for a vampire hybrid. As if such a thing could ever be considered normal! A vampire hybrid, indeed!† â€Å"Excuse me,† Edward said in a stunned voice. He reached out and caught Eleazar’s shoulder as he was about to turn again for the door. â€Å"What did you just call my wife?† Eleazar looked at Edward curiously, his manic pacing forgotten for the moment. â€Å"A shield, I think. She’s blocking me now, so I can’t be sure.† I stared at Eleazar, my brows furrowing in confusion. Shield? What did he mean about my blocking him? I was standing right here beside him, not defensive in any way. â€Å"A shield?† Edward repeated, bewildered. â€Å"Come now, Edward! If I can’t get a read on her, I doubt you can, either. Can you hear her thoughts right now?† Eleazar asked. â€Å"No,† Edward murmured. â€Å"But I’ve never been able to do that. Even when she was human.† â€Å"Never?† Eleazar blinked. â€Å"Interesting. That would indicate a rather powerful latent talent, if it was manifesting so clearly even before the transformation. I can’t feel a way through her shield to get a sense of it at all. Yet she must be raw still – she’s only a few months old.† The look he gave Edward now was almost exasperated. â€Å"And apparently completely unaware of what she’s doing. Totally unconscious. Ironic. Aro sent me all over the world searching for such anomalies, and you simply stumble across it by accident and don’t even realize what you have.† Eleazar shook his head in disbelief. I frowned. â€Å"What are you talking about? How can I be a shield? What does that even mean?† All I could picture in my head was a ridiculous medieval suit of armor. Eleazar leaned his head to one side as he examined me. â€Å"I suppose we were overly formal about it in the guard. In truth, categorizing talents is a subjective, haphazard business; every talent is unique, never exactly the same thing twice. But you, Bella, are fairly easy to classify. Talents that are purely defensive, that protect some aspect of the bearer, are always called shields. Have you ever tested your abilities? Blocked anyone besides me and your mate?† It took me few seconds, despite how quickly my new brain worked, to organize my answer. â€Å"It only works with certain things,† I told him. â€Å"My head is sort of†¦ private. But it doesn’t stop Jasper from being able to mess with my mood or Alice from seeing my future.† â€Å"Purely a mental defense.† Eleazar nodded to himself. â€Å"Limited, but strong.† â€Å"Aro couldn’t hear her,† Edward interjected. â€Å"Though she was human when they met.† Eleazar’s eyes widened. â€Å"Jane tried to hurt me, but she couldn’t,† I said. â€Å"Edward thinks Demetri can’t find me, and that Alec can’t bother me, either. Is that good?† Eleazar, still gaping, nodded. â€Å"Quite.† â€Å"A shield!† Edward said, deep satisfaction saturating his tone. â€Å"I never thought of it that way. The only one I’ve ever met before was Renata, and what she did was so different.† Eleazar had recovered slightly. â€Å"Yes, no talent ever manifests in precisely the same way, because no one ever thinks in exactly the same way.† â€Å"Who’s Renata? What does she do?† I asked. Renesmee was interested, too, leaning away from Carmen so that she could see around Kate. â€Å"Renata is Aro’s personal bodyguard,† Eleazar told me. â€Å"A very practical kind of shield, and a very strong one.† I vaguely remembered a small crowd of vampires hovering close to Aro in his macabre tower, some male, some female. I couldn’t remember the women’s faces in the uncomfortable, terrifying memory. One must have been Renata. â€Å"I wonder†¦,† Eleazar mused. â€Å"You see, Renata is a powerful shield against a physical attack. If someone approaches her – or Aro, as she is always close beside him in a hostile situation – they find themselves†¦ diverted. There’s a force around her that repels, though it’s almost unnoticeable. You simply find yourself going a different direction than you planned, with a confused memory as to why you wanted to go that other way in the first place. She can project her shield several meters out from herself. She also protects Caius and Marcus, too, when they have a need, but Aro is her priority. â€Å"What she does isn’t actually physical, though. Like the vast majority of our gifts, it takes place inside the mind. If she tried to keep you back, I wonder who would win?† He shook his head. â€Å"I’ve never heard of Aro’s or Jane’s gifts being thwarted.† â€Å"Momma, you’re special,† Renesmee told me without any surprise, like she was commenting on the color of my clothes. I felt disoriented. Didn’t I already know my gift? I had my super-self-control that had allowed me to skip right over the horrifying newborn year. Vampires only had one extra ability at most, right? Or had Edward been correct in the beginning? Before Carlisle had suggested that my self-control could be something beyond the natural, Edward had thought my restraint was just a product of good preparation – focus and attitude,he’d declared. You read "The Twilight Saga 4: Breaking Dawn 31. Talented" in category "Essay examples" Which one had been right? Was there more I could do? A name and a category for what I was? â€Å"Can you project?† Kate asked interestedly. â€Å"Project?† I asked. â€Å"Push it out from yourself,† Kate explained. â€Å"Shield someone besides yourself.† â€Å"I don’t know. I’ve never tried. I didn’t know I should do that.† â€Å"Oh, you might not be able to,† Kate said quickly. â€Å"Heavens knows I’ve been working on it for centuries and the best I can do is run a current over my skin.† I stared at her, mystified. â€Å"Kate’s got an offensive skill,† Edward said. â€Å"Sort of like Jane.† I flinched away from Kate automatically, and she laughed. â€Å"I’m not sadistic about it,† she assured me. â€Å"It’s just something that comes in handy during a fight.† Kate’s words were sinking in, beginning to make connections in my mind. Shield someone besides yourself she’d said. As if there were some way for me to include another person in my strange, quirky silent head. I remembered Edward cringing on the ancient stones of the Volturi castle turret. Though this was a human memory, it was sharper, more painful than most of the others – like it had been branded into the tissues of my brain. What if I could stop that from happening ever again? What if I could protect him? Protect Renesmee? What if there was even the faintest glimmer of a possibility that I could shield them, too? â€Å"You have to teach me what to do!† I insisted, unthinkingly grabbing Kate’s arm. â€Å"You have to show me how!† Kate winced at my grip. â€Å"Maybe – if you stop trying to crush my radius.† â€Å"Oops! Sorry!† â€Å"You’re shielding, all right,† Kate said. â€Å"That move should have about shocked your arm off. You didn’t feel anything just now?† â€Å"That wasn’t really necessary, Kate. She didn’t mean any harm,† Edward muttered under his breath. Neither of us paid attention to him. â€Å"No, I didn’t feel anything. Were you doing your electric current thing?† â€Å"I was. Hmm. I’ve never met anyone who couldn’t feel it, immortal or otherwise.† â€Å"You said you project it? On your skin?† Kate nodded. â€Å"It used to be just in my palms. Kind of like Aro.† â€Å"Or Renesmee,† Edward interjected. â€Å"But after a lot of practice, I can radiate the current all over my body. It’s a good defense. Anyone who tries to touch me drops like a human that’s been Tasered. It only downs him for a second, but that’s long enough.† I was only half-listening to Kate, my thoughts racing around the idea that I might be able to protect my little family if I could just learn fast enough. I wished fervently that I might be good at this projecting thing, too, like I was somehow mysteriously good at all the other aspects of being a vampire. My human life had not prepared me for things that came naturally, and I couldn’t make myself trust this aptitude to last. It felt like I had never wanted anything so badly before this; to be able to protect what I loved. Because I was so preoccupied, I didn’t notice the silent exchange going on between Edward and Eleazar until it became a spoken conversation. â€Å"Can you think of even one exception, though?† Edward asked. I looked over to make sense of his comment and realized that everyone else was already staring at the two men. They were leaning toward each other intently, Edward’s expression tight with suspicion, Eleazar’s unhappy and reluctant. â€Å"I don’t want to think of them that way,† Eleazar said through his teeth. I was surprised at the sudden change in the atmosphere. â€Å"If you’re right – ,† Eleazar began again. Edward cut him off. â€Å"The thought was yours, not mine.† â€Å"If I’m right†¦ I can’t even grasp what that would mean. It would change everything about the world we’ve created. It would change the meaning of my life. What I have been a part of.† â€Å"Your intentions were always the best, Eleazar.† â€Å"Would that even matter? What have I done? How many lives †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Tanya put her hand on Eleazar’s shoulder in a comforting gesture. â€Å"What did we miss, my friend? I want to know so that I can argue with these thoughts. You’ve never done anything worth castigating yourself this way.† â€Å"Oh, haven’t I?† Eleazar muttered. Then he shrugged out from under her hand and began his pacing again, faster even than before. Tanya watched him for half a second and then focused on Edward. â€Å"Explain.† Edward nodded, his tense eyes following Eleazar as he spoke. â€Å"He was trying to understand why so many of the Volturi would come to punish us. It’s not the way they do things. Certainly, we are the biggest mature coven they’ve dealt with, but in the past other covens have joined to protect themselves, and they never presented much of a challenge despite their numbers. We are more closely bonded, and that’s a factor, but not a huge one. â€Å"He was remembering other times that covens have been punished, for one thing or the other, and a pattern occurred to him. It was a pattern that the rest of the guard would never have noticed, since Eleazar was the one passing the pertinent intelligence privately to Aro. A pattern that only repeated every other century or so.† â€Å"What was this pattern?† Carmen asked, watching Eleazar as Edward was. â€Å"Aro does not often personally attend a punishing expedition,† Edward said. â€Å"But in the past, when Aro wanted something in particular, it was never long before evidence turned up proving that this coven or that coven had committed some unpardonable crime. The ancients would decide to go along to watch the guard administer justice. And then, once the coven was all but destroyed, Aro would grant a pardon to one member whose thoughts, he would claim, were particularly repentant. Always, it would turn out that this vampire had the gift Aro had admired. Always, this person was given a place with the guard. The gifted vampire was won over quickly, always so grateful for the honor. There were no exceptions.† â€Å"It must be a heady thing to be chosen,† Kate suggested. â€Å"Ha!† Eleazar snarled, still in motion. â€Å"There is one among the guard,† Edward said, explaining Eleazar’s angry reaction. â€Å"Her name is Chelsea. She has influence over the emotional ties between people. She can both loosen and secure these ties. She could make someone feel bonded to the Volturi, to want to belong, to want to please them___† Eleazar came to an abrupt halt. â€Å"We all understood why Chelsea was important. In a fight, if we could separate allegiances between allied covens, we could defeat them that much more easily. If we could distance the innocent members of a coven emotionally from the guilty, justice could be done without unnecessary brutality – the guilty could be punished without interference, and the innocent could be spared. Otherwise, it was impossible to keep the coven from fighting as a whole. So Chelsea would break the ties that bound them together. It seemed a great kindness to me, evidence of Aro’s mercy. I did suspect that Chelsea kept our own band more tightly knit, but that, too, was a good thing. It made us more effective. It helped us coexist more easily.† This clarified old memories for me. It had not made sense to me before how the guard obeyed their masters so gladly, with almost lover-like devotion. â€Å"How strong is her gift?† Tanya asked with an edge to her voice. Her gaze quickly touched on each member of her family. Eleazar shrugged. â€Å"I was able to leave with Carmen.† And then he shook his head. â€Å"But anything weaker than the bond between partners is in danger. In a normal coven, at least. Those are weaker bonds than those in our family, though. Abstaining from human blood makes us more civilized – lets us form true bonds of love. I doubt she could turn our allegiances, Tanya.† Tanya nodded, seeming reassured, while Eleazar continued with his analysis. â€Å"I could only think that the reason Aro had decided to come himself, to bring so many with him, is because his goal is not punishment but acquisition,† Eleazar said. â€Å"He needs to be there to control the situation. But he needs the entire guard for protection from such a large, gifted coven. On the other hand, that leaves the other ancients unprotected in Volterra. Too risky – someone might try to take advantage. So they all come together. How else could he be sure to preserve the gifts that he wants? He must want them very badly,† Eleazar mused. Edward’s voice was low as a breath. â€Å"From what I saw of his thoughts last spring, Aro’s never wanted anything more than he wants Alice.† I felt my mouth fall open, remembering the nightmarish pictures I had imagined long ago: Edward and Alice in black cloaks with bloodred eyes, their faces cold and remote as they stood close as shadows, Aro’s hands on theirs†¦. Had Alice seen this more recently? Had she seen Chelsea trying to strip away her love for us, to bind her to Aro and Caius and Marcus? â€Å"Is that why Alice left?† I asked, my voice breaking on her name. Edward put his hand against my cheek. â€Å"I think it must be. To keep Aro from gaining the thing he wants most of all. To keep her power out of his hands.† I heard Tanya and Kate murmuring in disturbed voices and remembered that they hadn’t known about Alice. â€Å"He wants you, too,† I whispered. Edward shrugged, his face suddenly a little too composed. â€Å"Not nearly as much. I can’t really give him anything more than he already has. And of course that’s dependent on his finding a way to force me to do his will. He knows me, and he knows how unlikely that is.† He raised one eyebrow sardonically. Eleazar frowned at Edward’s nonchalance. â€Å"He also knows your weaknesses,† Eleazar pointed out, and then he looked at me. â€Å"It’s nothing we need to discuss now,† Edward said quickly. Eleazar ignored the hint and continued. â€Å"He probably wants your mate, too, regardless. He must have been intrigued by a talent that could defy him in its human incarnation.† Edward was uncomfortable with this topic. I didn’t like it, either. If Aro wanted me to do something – anything – all he had to do was threaten Edward and I would comply. And vice versa. Was death the lesser concern? Was it really capture we should fear? Edward changed the subject. â€Å"I think the Volturi were waiting for this – for some pretext. They couldn’t know what form their excuse would come in, but the plan was already in place for when it did come. That’s why Alice saw their decision before Irina triggered it. The decision was already made, just waiting for the pretense of a justification.† â€Å"If the Volturi are abusing the trust all immortals have placed in them†¦,† Carmen murmured. â€Å"Does it matter?† Eleazar asked. â€Å"Who would believe it? And even if others could be convinced that the Volturi are exploiting their power, how would it make any difference? No one can stand against them.† â€Å"Though some of us are apparently insane enough to try,† Kate muttered. Edward shook his head. â€Å"You’re only here to witness, Kate. Whatever Aro’s goal, I don’t think he’s ready to tarnish the Volturi’s reputation for it. If we can take away his argument against us, he’ll be forced to leave us in peace.† â€Å"Of course,† Tanya murmured. No one looked convinced. For a few long minutes, nobody said anything. Then Iheard the sound of tires turning off the highway pavement onto the Cullens’ dirt drive. â€Å"Oh crap, Charlie,† I muttered. â€Å"Maybe the Denalis could hang out upstairs until – â€Å" â€Å"No,† Edward said in a distant voice. His eyes were far away, staring blankly at the door. â€Å"It’s not your father.† His gaze focused on me. â€Å"Alice sent Peter and Charlotte, afterall. Time to get ready for the next round.† How to cite The Twilight Saga 4: Breaking Dawn 31. Talented, Essay examples

EXTENDED Essay Example For Students

EXTENDED Essay Asian Philosophies of Critical Thinking: divergent or convergent to western establishments?By Clement NgSCHOOL CODE: 1206 (Sha Tin College)CANDIDATE CODE: MAY 2003 ? 1206 038AbstractThe research question of this extended essay came across at a very early stage in my life. Having been born and developed from a family with all its members being University instructors and professors, I was often involved in arguments related to the lack of critical thinking in Asian cultures. As I got older, having had the chance to emerge in different cultures, I started to develop my own viewpoints and answers. I started to wonder about the truth between the real differences of Asian and Western philosophies of critical thinking. This extended essay, intended to be a research and investigation, bearing the title Asian Philosophies of Critical Thinking: divergent or convergent to Western establishments? is in fact however merely just a summary of my viewpoints and answers which I have developed through out the years. In the first section of the essay, Logical Tradition in India and China I will attempt to give evidence of critical thinking in two Asian cultures that I have chosen; namely India and China. In India, I will argue that critical thinking is clearly visible in historical texts such as the Caraka and Nyayasutra. This is presented as the well-known five-membered argument, a system of logical deduction, similar to the Aristotelian syllogism found in the west. In China I would focus mainly on the two schools of logical thought, the Mohists and the Logicians. For the Mohists I would argue that critical thinking is a vital element in the building of what they call mental models. For the Logicians, I would study deeply the writings of Hui Shih and Kungsun Lung, I would show that in fact both of them developed systems of logical and paradoxical thinking that could well serve as the foundations of modern science. If critical thinking is clearly presentable in these Asian cultures then why are there still concerns for introducing it to them? This is the question I intend to answer in the latter section Needhams Grand Question and Fullers Interpretation. During this section, I would also show that discussions of modern science seem to enable us to see how the tradition of critical thinking arose and how they were promoted or discouraged. I would cover how Asian historical, economic, social and cultural factors have a big influence on their development of critical thinking. Lastly I would show how the prioritization of a civilization has a devastating effect on deciding the future road they intend to walk. In conclusion, I would argue that since the philosophy of a culture is but an abstract and theoretical expression and justification of the cultures decision to choose one set of priorities over another, Asian philosophy and critical thinking are neither necessarily divergent nor necessarily convergent to western establishments. ContentsIntroduction 4Logical Tradition in India and China 4Needhams Grand Question and Fullers Interpretation 7Asian Philosophy and Critical Thinking: Divergence or Convergence? 8Conclusion 9Bibliography 10References 11Asian Philosophies of Critical Thinking: divergent or convergent to western establishments?By Clement NgIntroductionIt is widely recognized nowadays that critical thinking has become a necessary ingredient in all levels of education. Educators and educational policy makers agree that one of the desirable goals of education is that students are able to think critically. Throughout the past few years, many have felt the need to consider critical thinking more seriously in educational programs. At the moment several different acts are being considered around the world by various factors and agencies. The core of these proposed acts is the idea that the students are able to think critically and independently. Although there are widespread disagreements on what critical th inking actually is, there is an agreement that it has become very important in the world overwhelmed by huge amounts of information. Some Western educators who teach at schools or universities in a number of Asian countries have voiced their difficulties and problems they encounter while trying to teach critical thinking and other related skills to Asian students. Bruce Davidson (1998) argues that a set of Japanese cultural factors act as a kind of barrier against teaching critical thinking to students. Atkinson (1999) goes so far as to argue that critical thinking is culturally specific, and is a part of the social practices of the West having no place within Asian cultures, which do not adopt such practices. What these educators have in common is the feeling that some elements in Asian cultures do prevent the full realization of critical thinking skills in the students. Most of these elements perceived by Western educators in Asia are quite well knownthe beliefs that teachers are superior and always right, that knowledge is not to be made here and now, but exists eternally, so to speak, to be handed down by teac hers, that social harmony is to be preferred rather than asking probing questionsto mention just a few. Is critical thinking really culture specific? Can the traditional belief systems of Asia respond to the challenge of the modern world while still retaining their distinctive identities? Are Asian philosophy and critical thinking necessary divergent or possibly convergent? These are very significant question not just for Asian cultures, but for understanding how cultures of the world respond to globalization. In addition the question also has a bearing on the problematic relation between critical thinking and the cultural environment in which it happens to be embedded. In this essay, I attempt to argue that critical thinking is not necessarily incompatible with Asian traditional belief systems. In fact I will show that both India and China do have their own indigenous traditions of logical and argumentative thinking; it is just because of certain barriers that prevent them from further developing such establishments. I will further try to show that these traditions can and should be reexamined, reinterpreted and adapted to the contemporary situation. By doing this I would seek acknowledgement to the essay question and would provide an answer to the Western educators who have found no such critical traditions in the East. Logical Tradition in India and ChinaIt is widely known that India had a highly advanced logical tradition, spanning more than two thousand years. The successes of Indian mathematicians and computer programmers are perhaps due to the fact that logic and critical thinking have been integral to the Indian way of thinking since time immemorial. Such integration can also be witnessed in the fondness of Indians for talking and debating. Tscherbatsky (1962: 31-34) tells us that in the times of Dignaga and Dharmakirti, two of the greatest Buddhist logicians, the fate of entire monasteries depended on public debates. According to Tscherbatsky, Dignaga won his fame and royal support through his defeat of the brahmin Sudurjaya at Nalanda Monastery (31-34). In another vein, Matilal (1990: 1-8) argues that the Indian logical tradition is entirely home grown, since there is no evidence of India being influenced by Aristotelian ideas. Matilal also shows that many topics, which are of interest by contemporary logicians and philosophers today, were discussed and researched into with sophistication by Indian scholars. Such topics include theory of inference, empty names, reference and existence, perception, knowledge of the external world, substance, causality, and many others (Matilal 1990). Moreover, Tscherbatskys (1962) work, dealing mainly with the works of Dignaga and Dharmakirti illustrates that India is one of the great logical and philosophical civilizations of the world. There are a number of topics that both traditions discovered independently of each other. For example, Matilal notes that the counterpart of the Aristotelian syllogism is the five-membered argument found in such texts as Caraka and Nyayasutra. Instead of the three propositions found in Aristotelian syllogism, the five-membered argument consists of five propositions, the first of which is the conclusion, and the last repeating what is already stated in the first. The remaining three propositions in between are the premises. Here is one example of the five-membered argument cited by Matilal (1990: 5):1. There is fire on this mountain. 2. For, there is smoke there. 3. Smoke goes with fire always (or, in all cases, or in all places): witness, kitchen. 4. This is also a case of smoke. 5. Therefore, there is fire there (on the mountain). Logicians will immediately be able to reconstruct this argument in the familiar Aristotelian form as follows:The place on the mountain is a place where there is smoke. A place where there is smoke is a place where there is fire. Therefore, the place on the mountain is a place where there is fire. Matilal, however, notes that there is at least some dissimilarity between the Indian and the Aristotelian argument forms presented here. For instance, he says that the conclusion of the Indian argument form is in the form of ?singular proposition, (i.e., modified by demonstratives like ?this or ?that) whereas that of the Aristotelian syllogism is either universal or particular (i.e., modified by quantifiers like ?all or ?some). But the dissimilarity here could be amended, as indexicals (terms like ?this or ?that which relies on the context of utterance for their full meaning) could be dispensed with by supplying the required information on the context in which they are uttered. Thus it could be safely stated that the Indian logical tradition fully comprehended the essence, so to speak, of logic, which is the concept of validity and the basic valid argument form. Another of the worlds great civilizations, China, also had its own indigenous and independent logical tradition. Two of Chinas logical schools of thought are the Mohists and the Logicians. The former was founded by Mo Ti, who lived between 479 to 381 B.C., during the Warring States period of Chinese history (Ronan 1978: 114). Among the typical Chinese scholars the Mohists are better known for their doctrine of universal love and the condemnation of offensive war rather than their interests and achievements in the physical sciences. In the latter Needham reports that the Mohists went very far towards realizing that the thought system was in fact a prerequisite for modern science. Most significantly, the Mohists appeared to be in grasp of the concepts of deduction and induction. They viewed the former as a way of thinking which follows a ?mental model, which guarantees that whoever follows it will never fail to be right in their thinking. Here is an example of reasoning based on follow ing such mental model:Model thinking consists in following the methods . What are followed in model-thinking are the methods. Therefore if the methods are truly followed by the model-thinking , the reasoning will be correct. But if the methods are not truly followed by the model-thinking, the reasoning will be wrong (Ronan 1978: 119). On the other hand, the Mohists also recognized the value of ?extension which is a kind of reasoning from the known examples and ?extend it to unknown cases similar to them:Extension is considering that that which one has not yet received is identical with those which one has already received, and admitting it (Ronan 1978: 119). The Civil Rights Movement Essay1034Asian Philosophy and Critical Thinking: Divergence or Convergence?Hence, the values typically associated with Asian culture such as social harmony and deference to the elders and teachers are thus seen as consequences of the cultures deciding to put a certain set of priorities above others. Social harmony was instrumental in bringing about the cultural unity that is the most distinctive characteristic of Chinese culture. It is valued above most other types of values because it goes hand in hand with social stability, whose alternative is perceived as chaos and general burden of social structure. The prioritization of social harmony can also be seen in other Asian cultures such as the Thai one, and results in Thais trying as far as they possibly can to avoid open conflicts and disagreements. In the case of China, since all the elements that could bring about the rise of modern science were in place, it is quite clear that the Chinese culture actual ly chose not to go along the path taken by the Europeans. The decision made by a culture to adopt a particular system of beliefs and practices certainly did not happen suddenly, as if at one particular moment of history, members of a culture had a meeting and declared their cultures adoption of this or that set. The decision occurred gradually throughout the historical development of a culture, and can be seen in China adopting Confucianism rather than the more materialistic and scientifically inclined Taoism and Mohism, and in India adopting the more mystical doctrine emphasizing the role of meditation and private insights rather than publicly demonstrable methods of knowing. I think that reasons for such decision are enormously complicated, but it is hardly conceivable that China was somehow destined to lag behind Europe in the science race due to factors they could not control. This may be taken to show that critical thinking and Asian thought are divergent. If the Asian cultures chose not to go along the path where critical thinking is one milestone, then both do not seem to go with each other, and Atkinson may be vindicated when he argues that critical thinking is a part of Western culture only. If the Asian cultures prioritize sets of values which are incompatible with critical thinking, and if they freely chose those sets over the set adopted by Europeans for whatever reasons, then it appears that critical thinking would belong to European culture only, and to adopt it to Asian cultures would be the same as to importing foreign ideas and practices to alien lands. Thus, Atkinsons argument seems to fit well with the under determinist position. This line of reasoning, however, would be valid only if a culture decided as its own set of priorities at one time will always remain so for all other times. If the Thai culture, for example, once decided that social harmony should take precedence over critical argumentation and open debates, then critical thinking practices would be forever alien to them. But that is surely a very unreasonable position to take. Cultures, like humans, often make decisions that later are amended or revoked with new decisions made; when things are not the same any longer. Decisions to prioritize one set of values over another are not etched in stone, but even so the stone can be broken down or else taken to a museum or a pedestal where it loses its real meaning. Decisions at one time reflect the circumstances normal at that particular time, and to stick onto past decisions with no plan of adapting or making new decisions in response to changing circumstances would make the culture frozen and unable to participate. Opting not to correct their past decisions, a culture would in effect be telling the world that it is constructing a wall around itself, giving nothing to the world and receiving nothing. However, sociological and economic conditions of the current world do not permit such a scenario from happening. Cultures need to change themselves, not merely to survive, but to prosper and to permit better lives for their members. Consequently, Asian cultures and critical thinking are divergent only if the former opt not to correct their decisions. But since we are talking only about decisions, then it is not difficult at all to suggest that cultures would make new decisions in response to changing times. Doing so would make the two more convergent. Hence, the divergence and convergence, after all, depend on what decisions a culture makes. There is nothing necessarily attached to a cultures path along history that makes it essentially divergent or convergent from the modern critical thinking tradition, or from any tradition for that matter. Since the philosophy of a culture is but an abstract and theoretical expression and justification of the cultures decision to choose one set of priorities over another, Asian philosophy and critical thinking are neither necessarily divergent nor necessarily convergent. ConclusionAny attempt to introduce, or we should say to bring back critical thinking practices to the cultures of Asia would, therefore, begin within the cultures themselves. This is in line with the under determinist idea that each culture has its own peculiar development path which is not necessarily shared with others. The mission of spreading the truth of one culture to another is a misplaced. One that apart from sounding patronizing, is something the current morality cannot accept. Thus the first step in such an attempt must consist of a series of arguments designed to show to most members of the culture where critical thinking is to be introduced, that critical thinking is really good. However to do that would at least require large amounts of explanations, something that is definitely out of scope of this present essay. Besides, to argue that critical thinking is actually a good thing to have is difficult, because it may run counter to the deeply established belief that critic al thinking is just a label for the confrontational mode of life that the culture finds unpleasant and difficult to accept. Though the task is difficult, I believe that it is unavoidable. As an insider of my own Chinese cultural tradition, I am trying to convince the members of my culture of the value of critical thinking and its important role in educating citizens for the increasingly globalized world of today and tomorrow. An important part of my argument for combining critical thinking and its belief systems to the Chinese culture is the idea that people should view the elements of their culture which could present the most serious obstacles to critical thinking as benign fiction. That is, elements such as respect of the elders and the belief in social ranking and so on should be viewed in the same way as a modern person views his or her own traditional customs and ceremonies. One is in a sense a part of the culture where the ceremonies happen, but in another sense detached from it. This is because he knows himself only to serve a certain function in the culture, and in addition, knowledge of other cu ltures enables further detachment from his own customs and ceremonies. Such an argument would naturally require a lot more space and time than is available here. What I hope to have accomplished in this essay, however, is much more modest. It is, as we have seen, an argument that Asian philosophy and Asian thought in general do not necessarily conflict with critical thinking and its presuppositions. Furthermore, it is the influential making of decisions throughout the history of each culture itself, which, I believe, is flexible and adaptive enough to effect important changes for the future. 1065BibliographyAtkinson, D. 1997. A Critical Approach to Critical Thinking. TESOL Quarterly 31, 71-94. Blair, J. Anthony and Ralph H. Johnson. 1991. Misconceptions of Informal Logic: A Reply to McPeck. Teaching Philosophy 14.1, 35-52. Davidson, Bruce. 1995. Critical Thinking Education Faces the Challenge of Japan. Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines, 14.3, 31 pars., http://www.shss.montclair.edu/inquiry/spr95/davidson.html. Fuller, Steve. 1997. Science. Birmingham: Open UP. Hatcher, Donald. 1995a. Critical Thinking and Epistemic Obligations. Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines 14.3, 38 pars., http://www.shss.montclair.edu/inquiry/spr95/hatcher2.html. Hatcher, Donald. 1995b. Should Anti-Realists Teach Critical Thinking?. Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines 14.4, 21 pars., http://www.shss.montclair.edu/inquiry/summ95/hatcher.html. Hongladarom, Soraj. 1998a. Critical Thinking and the Realism/Anti-Realism Debate, http://pioneer.chula.ac.th/~hsoraj/web/CT.html. Hongladarom, Soraj. 1998b. Humanistic Education in Todays and Tomorrows World. Manusya: Journal of Humanities, 1 (forthcoming). Hostetler, Karl. 1991. Community and Neutrality in Critical Thought: A Nonobjectivist View on the Conduct and Teaching of Critical Thinking. Educational Theory, 41.1, 1-12. Matilal, Bimal Krishna. 1990. Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. McGuire, John. 1998. Is Critical Thinking Cultural Thinking?. Unpublished ms. McPeck, John E. 1991. What is Learned in Informal Logic?, Teaching Philosophy, 14.1, 25-34. Needham, Joseph. 1969. The Grand Titration: Science and Society in East and West. London: Allen Unwin. Paul, Richard. 1993. Critical Thinking: What Every Person Needs to Survive in a Rapidly Changing World. Santa Rosa, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking. Ronan, Colin A. 1978. The Shorter Science and Civilization in China: An Abridgement of Needhams Original Text. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Sutton, Robert. 1995. Realism and Other Philosophical Mantras. Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines, 14.4, 18 pars., http://www.shss.montclair.edu/inquiry/summ95/sutton.html. Tscherbatsky, F. Th. 1962. Buddhist Logic. New York: Dover. References The literature on the nature and definitions of critical thinking are enormous. Probably the most intense debate among critical thinking experts centers on the question whether critical thinking can be a separate autonomous academic disciplines dealing with the general form of thinking to be applied by students in all of their academic areas. Or whether it is not autonomous at all, but should always be part of important academic disciplines. However, I believe that these debates give us little understanding of what critical thinking should be. For critical thinking would be nothing if not applied to real cases, and the study of it would not be totally effective if the skills and theories unique to it were not abstracted and studied on their own. The other debates focuses on the nature of critical thinking, or the meaning of critical thinking itself. Richard Paul (1993) provides a definition that no one can gainsay: Critical thinking is the kind of thinking one thinks of on es thinking in order to make ones thinking better. Hatcher (1995a; 1995b) calls for the kind of critical thinking that is based on the so-called epistemological realist position this is contrasted by Sutton (1995) and Hostetler (1991), who argue that critical thinking is more amenable to the anti-realist position. Whatever it is, there is still no correct definition concerning the true meaning of critical thinking.